European Geologist Journal 57

Advancements in Forensic Geology: Geological, Police and Law Enforcement Collaboration

 

by Dr Laurance John Donnelly1*

1*Chief Geologist, Head of Technical Department, AHK International Limited; Founder and Chair, International Union of Geological Sciences, Initiative on Forensic Geology; Founder and first Chair, Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group

Contact: laurance.donnelly@ahkgroup.com

Abstract

The applications of geology to police and law enforcement have been documented since the mid-nineteenth century. However, only in recent decades has forensic geology become globally established. This, in part, can be attributed to the establishment of groups such as the Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group (GSL-FGG) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), Initiative on forensic geology. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the advancements in forensic geology including crime scene examination; geological trace evidence; ground searches for burials related to homicide, serious organised crime and counter terrorism; illegal mining and associated minerals and metals crimes.

Cite as: Donnelly, L. J. (2024). Advancements in Forensic Geology: Geological, Police and Law Enforcement Collaboration. European Geologist, 57. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12205560

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

1. Introduction; What is Forensic Geology?

Forensic geology, also referred to as ‘forensic geoscience’ or ‘geoforensics’, is ‘the application of geology to policing and law enforcement, which may potentially be applicable to a court of law’. Generally, this may include; serious crimes (e.g. homicide, rape, and other sexual assaults), organised crime (e.g. related to gangs and cartels), counter-terrorism, ground searches for buried, hidden or concealed targets (e.g. homicide graves, genocide mass graves, weapons, explosive devices, firearms, money, jewellery and other items of value), water searches, searches for people who have been reported as missing or lost, humanitarian incidents, environmental crimes (e.g. illegal tipping, pollution, and contamination), wildlife crime, precious minerals and mineral theft, mineral substitution, assay sample adulteration, fraudulent and financial crimes, conflict minerals, fakery (e.g. gemstones, minerals, precious metals, valuable or rare fossils, paintings, art and archaeological artefacts), geotechnical engineering and structural failures, engineering geology, and geohazards.

2. Historical Overview

Geologists have been aiding and assisting police and law enforcement since at least the mid-nineteenth century [1]. The first documented case in forensic geology is attributed to Professor Christian Ehrenberg in 1856. He examined barrels containing silver being transported on a train in Prussia (a former German state in Europe). The silver had been stolen and substituted with sand. Professor Ehrenberg examined microfossils in the sand and advised the police on the likely provenance, leading to the arrest of a suspect.

One of the fundamental principles in forensic geology was devised by Dr Edmund Locard (1877-1966) when he became interested in dust being transferred during a crime. He stated, ‘whenever two objects come into contact, there is always a transfer of material. The methods of detection may not be sensitive enough to demonstrate this, or the decay rate may be so rapid that all the evidence of transfer has vanished after a period of time. Nonetheless, the transfer has taken place’. This led to the fundamental premises that, ‘every contact leaves a trace’ [2].

In the late 1800 and early 1900s, fictitious Sherlock Holmes stories referenced the use of soil to investigate crimes, which appear to be based on the Locard Exchange Principle. See for example, ‘A Study in Scarlet (1887)’, ‘In The Sign of the Four (1890)’, ‘In The Five Orange Pips (1891)’, ‘In The Speckled Band (1892)’, and ‘In The Problem of Thor Bridge (1927)’. Nonetheless, serious crimes, including murder were successfully investigated by the use of geological trace evidence that had been transferred from a victim, thereby linking a suspect to the crime scene [3,4,5,6,7].

In the 1920s, Professor Edward Oscar Heinrich, University of California, established an orderly procedural investigation to identify; What happened? When did it happen? Where did it happen? Why did it happen? Who did it? Professor Heinrich used sand grains found on a pen knife to locate the body of a victim who had been kidnapped. He also analysed sand on a severed ear found in a marsh, and identified the estuary where the remainder of the body and human remains was found. In 1935, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) laboratory began using mineralogy and soil analysis in criminal investigations, including the kidnapping of a 10-year-old boy, Charles Mattson. By the 1940s and 1950s, advances in microscopy permitted investigators to analyse soil as exemplified by the ‘Green River Murders’ in the USA, whereby the offender was convicted of killing 48 victims. By the 1970s, the Central Research Establishment (CRE) at the UK Home Office Laboratory used soil characteristics to support police investigations. Forensic science handbooks began to recognise the use of soil in police investigations [8]. The first textbook on forensic geology was published in the mid-1970s [9]. Mineralogy and soil science were used following the assassination in Rome of the Italian Prime Minister, Aldo Moro in 1978 [10], and the murder by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Ireland of Lord Luis Mountbatten also in 1978 [11].

3. The Forensic Geology Renaissance

In 1992, the author was conducting a geological investigation in the British Midlands when human bones were found protruding from the ground. Although, these were subsequently proven to be a historical grave, the field visit demonstrated the police had a lack of geological knowledge and a poor appreciation of ground conditions. This prompted the authors to conduct a search for the grave of a 12-year-old boy that went missing in 1964. The police believe him to be the last remaining victim of the Moors Murders. An infamous crime that took place around in Manchester, United Kingdom, between 1963 and 1965, where five children were murdered and buried in shallow, unmarked graves in the Pennine Hills to the east of Manchester [12]. In 1994, the authors commenced a search for this grave, which continues to the present day. In the twenty-five years that followed, a new, pioneering search strategy developed in collaboration with the police, which became known as the ‘Geoforensic Search Strategy (GSS)’. This blended geological and law enforcement methodologies to provide a high assurance strategy, to locate the presence of a burial or to prove its absence (see section on search below) [13].

3.1. Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group

By the year 2000, geologists were routinely supporting some high-profile police and law enforcement cases. However, most police remained unaware of the potential value of a forensic geologist supporting a criminal investigation. The fundamental principles of geology and the applications of investigative techniques rested beyond the experiences and conventional training of the police. What is more, there were few incentives or opportunities to permit police and geological collaboration, but this was about to change. In 2002, the author was invited to deliver a presentation on, ‘Forensic Geology and the Moors Murders’ at Westminster Palace, House of Commons, in London, as part of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Earth Science. This raised the profile of forensic geology, attracted interest from the police, politicians, other geologists, and the media. This was followed by an interview on BBC Radio 4 in London, explaining how geology can help to investigate crime [14,15]. From 2002 to 2005 the author engaged with the Geological Society of London, to establish a new group specifically focusing on forensic geology. Eventually, permission was granted and the ‘Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group (GSL-FGG)’, was formally launched on 18 December 2006. A scientific meeting and conference on forensic geology was also held in 2003 [16]. GSL-FGG organised several events in London including the ‘First Inaugural Forensic Geology Meeting and Geoscientists at Crime Scenes’ (2006), ‘Geoscientific Equipment and Techniques at Crime Scenes (2008)’, ‘Environmental and Criminal Geoforensics (2010, 2018)’, ‘Forensic Geophysics and Forensic Geoscience (2020)’ and ‘New Horizons in Forensic Geoscience: The Bedrock of International Security in Minerals, Mining, Metals, Murders and the Missing’ (2023)’.

3.2 International Union of Geological Sciences, Initiative on Forensic Geology (IUGS-IFG)

Following the successful establishment of GSL-FGG, which primarily focused on the UK, a global approach was identified to unite international forensic geologists who worked with police and law enforcement. In 2009, the author established the ‘Geoforensic International Network (GIN)’, an informal group comprising practising geologists and operationally based police officers with a common interest to advance the applications of geology to law enforcement. This coincided with the author’s establishment of a working group on forensic geology at the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), Commission for Geoenvironmental Management (GEM). In 2011, this became elevated to the ‘IUGS Initiative on Forensic Geology (IFG)’. IUGS-IFG seeks ‘to develop forensic geology internationally and promote its applications’ (Figure 1). This has been achieved by the delivery of outreach, knowledge exchange, capacity-building and formal training for geologists, police and law enforcement. Notable collaboration has taken place with the UK National Crime Agency (NCA); UK Police National Search Centre (PNSC); the British Army and Royal Engineers; Australian Federal Police; Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission; Brazilian Federal Police; Abu Dhabi Police; Colombian National Police; An Garda Síochána (Ireland), Police Service of Northern Ireland; Guardia Civil (Spain); National Research Institute of Police Science (Japan); Russian Federal Centre for Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice in Moscow; the Government of India; Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security, Division of Trace Evidence Analysis in China; Carabinieri (Italy and Sicily); Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and INTERPOL [17,18].

Figure 1: Iconic logos of the Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group GSL-FGG) and the International Union of Geological Sciences, Initiative on Forensic Geology (IUGS-IFG), both established by Dr Laurance Donnelly in 2006, and 2011 respectively, to develop forensic geology globally and advance its applications to police and law enforcement investigations [1].

4. Crime Scene Examination

The purpose of a forensic geologist at a crime scene is to collect geological samples (Figure 2). These may include minerals, soils, sediments, superficial deposits, rocks, mineralised rock, ore, micro-fossils, natural building materials (e.g. sand, gravel, building stone and slate) or anthropogenic material derived from geological raw material (e.g. glass, bricks, concrete, plaster board or tiles). Guidance is now available on the procedures and forensic protocols for the collection of geological evidence from crime scenes [19,20,21,22, 23]. It should be noted that geological trace evidence may be mixed with biological trace evidence and therefore a multi-disciplinary sampling strategy may be necessary. The sampling strategy depends on the offence committed, the crime scene conditions, and the questions being asked. For instance, a random sampling approach can provide bulk samples and facilitate geostatistical analysis to demonstrate geological variability [23]. Targeted sampling takes place where offenders and/or victims have potentially contacted the ground, for example by leaving footmarks where he/she stood, lay or knelt. The surrounding area should also be sampled, such as tracks and points of access and egress (Figure 3). If the ground is homogenous, such as an area of hardstanding concrete, macadam, open woodland or grassland, then a systematic grid sampling strategy may be needed.

Figure 2: Typical crime scenes that may contain geological trace evidence, including a woodland (top left), a beach (top right), a peat moorland (bottom left), and an urban location (bottom right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly.

Figure 2: Typical crime scenes that may contain geological trace evidence, including a woodland (top left), a beach (top right), a peat moorland (bottom left), and an urban location (bottom right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

4.1 Geological Samples

The sample mass may vary from just a few particles or minerals to several kilograms or greater depending on the crime scene dynamics and methods of sample transfer. The crime scene area may also vary from the confines of a small garden with a perimeter fence or wall, a public open space, or an urban setting. Importantly, the samples collected must be unbiased and fully representative. A predetermined sampling strategy should be developed in advance by the forensic geologist in consultation with the lead investigator and crime scene manager, and other forensic experts (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Recovery of samples from a body and the immediate vicinity at a simulated crime scene, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

The sampling locations and sample numbers will depend on the dynamics of the crime scene, nature of the offence committed, prevailing weather conditions, time elapsed since the crime took place and the potential for cross-contamination having occurred. It may also be necessary to take samples from beyond the crime scene itself, for instance from points of access and egress and other locations where the offender and/or victim may have potentially contacted the ground. Clearly, the more samples the better. However, the rationale for sample collection should strike a balance between what is reasonably practicable and cost-effective. Ideally, the outer limit of the crime scene will be determined by the lead investigating officer. Although, the outer cordon and crime scene might be difficult to delineate. For example, if a body is found in a river, the place the deceased entered the river may not be immediately obvious.

The geology and spatial variability of the ground will also be a decisive factor in determining the sampling locations. This includes, for example, whether the crime scene is urban, rural or comprises exposed bedrock superficial deposits or evidence of human activities (e.g. tipping, digging, mining, building or agriculture).

It is essential that the samples are collected, stored, labelled, and transported in a manner that aligns with forensic best practice and is consistent with the chain of custody. Importantly, all samples collected from a crime scene, or exhibits be unbiased and representative. If these practises are not adhered to, the physical evidence may not be admissible in court, no matter how compelling the evidence. Naturally, the forensic geologist will be expected to wear full body personal protective equipment, including gloves, foot covers, a face mask and head cover to minimise the risk of cross contamination. The types of forensic geology samples may be as follows:

  1. Questioned sample: These are collected from objects and items that are related to a suspected crime or offence that has taken place and are of an unknown origin. Typically, these could be soil from clothing, footwear, weapons or vehicles. A questioned sample is often compared to a reference sample.
  2. Known samples:
  3. Control sample: A sample from a known specific site that relates to the investigation.
  4. Reference sample: A sample from a known origin and can be used to make comparison.
  5. Alibi sample: These are collected from locations identified by the offender or suspect to help determine the provenance of geological materials, which could have innocently been transferred on to an item or object. An alibi sample may be collected to test a hypothesis presented by a suspect.

Sampling graves can require both a forensic geologist and forensic archaeologist to determine the most appropriate sampling strategy (Figure 5). There could also be present biomarkers released during human decomposition and mineralogical changes that have taken place beneath the floor and walls of the grave. The sampling of leachate plumes or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) will also require a predetermined sampling strategy [18].

Figure 5: Recovered human remains being examined, that were found in a shallow, unmarked homicide grave (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

Crime scenes tend to attract public and media attention. It is imperative the forensic geologist does not engage with the media or public. Inquiries should be referred to the appropriate family liaison officer or media liaison officer, unless otherwise instructed by the lead investigating officer in charge of the case. The forensic geologist should also be aware of media drones, helicopters or low flying aircraft that could take photographs of the crime scene under investigation. Crime scene sampling may be a traumatic experience for forensic geologists, especially if human remains are present. If so, support may be available or this should be sought if not readily provided, and if delayed trauma (‘shock’) is experienced.

5. Geological Trace Evidence

5.1 Exhibits

A forensic geologist may be required to recover geological material from a variety of exhibits including from people (e.g. soil beneath fingernails), human remains, clothes, footwear, vehicles, spades, or weapons (Figure 6). An important priority will be for the geological materials on the exhibits to be photographed in situ. Special attention should be paid to the types of geological materials and any stratification and cross-cutting relationships that might provide a relative chronological age. The geological material can then be recovered and prepared ahead of analysis. All exhibits must be stored in a clean, locked, and secure environment or laboratory at all times. The laboratory should also be compliant with an appropriate legislative framework and accreditation services (e.g. UKAS or ISO). Full personal protective equipment (PPE) is necessary when handling and preparing samples from exhibits to minimise the possibility for cross contamination.

Figure 6: Geological trace evidence including; soil beneath fingernails, which can be challenging to recover, but may yield important evidence (top). Geological evidence comprising soil stains and splashes on a pair of jeans (middle). Soil recovered from a boot (lower left) and a spade (lower right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly, [55]).

Samples could be delivered by a police officer or forensic exhibits manager. Prior to examination, sample packaging must be checked to ensure the samples have not been compromised and they have an accompanying chain of custody record. The description, date, time, and signature of initials should also be checked. Any loose material in the packaging that has become detached from the exhibit during transportation must also be included in the sample. If the exhibit contains body fluids, such as blood or DNA, the sampling and recovery strategy may require a multidisciplinary approach with other forensic experts.

When examining clothing and footwear, the forensic geologist should map and record the distribution and type of material. Some soils can prefer adhering certain geological materials. Cohesive wet clay may stick to some fabrics whereas dry granular sand tends to fall off. The items of clothing should be laid out, left to dry before and systematically described and documented before sample collection. Binocular microscopy or scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can assist in determining sample types and distribution, and the variability in colour, particle size, morphology, and texture [24,25]. Common methods for sample recovery are dry brushing, a tape lift, cotton buds and washing. However, the presence of soluble minerals needs to be considered if washing is used. Some geological materials may also be collected from a body post death, from the nose and nasal cavities.

Vehicles can provide a wealth of geological trace evidence (Figure 7). The distribution of this evidence could potentially provide a record of the locations the vehicle has travelled. On the exterior this tends to accumulate on the tyre walls and treads, wheel arches, door splatter and road dust. Also, below the vehicle on the suspension arms and chassis. In the interior, the footwell, foot mats, fabric seats, carpets or leather seats and the roof. The air filter may also provide a source of geological evidence. The vehicle should not be driven or towed, but the police should arrange for the vehicle to be picked up by a crane and transported to a clean and secure unit for forensic examination and evidence recovery. Tyre covers are recommended to prevent the loss of any geological trace evidence during transportation. The vehicle may not be at a crime scene and could have been driven before it was apprehended. The exterior of the vehicle should be examined first, followed by the interior, but the forensic geologist must not get inside the vehicle to take the samples. Sampling mixed soils on the wheel arches should be avoided unless the history of the vehicle’s location is known. Ideally, samples should be taken from discrete sediment or soil splashes and patches. Seat mats and covers should be carefully packed and taken to the laboratory for examination, and fabric from seats or carpets should be cut from the inside of the vehicle for more detailed laboratory analysis. Fine particles can be removed by brushing when dry or a swab. Coarse particles can be removed by tweezers and placed in a vial or sample packet. Small vacuums with filters have also been used to collect samples, however this can mix the provenance of the samples.

Figure 7: Forensic geology examination of a vehicle containing soil (upper) and geological trace evidence on a tyre (lower left) and splashes on the side panel of a car (lower right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly, [55]).

5.2 Analysis

Once samples have been collected from a crime scene or exhibit, they will require analysis. The type of analysis depends on the question being asked by the police. With regards to soil, this tends to be one of two questions, as follows:

  • What is in it? (In other words, can a questioned sample be linked to a crime scene or exhibit?).
  • Where is it from? (In other words, can a geographical provenance of the material be determined?).

The aim of the analysis must be clearly defined and measurable. It will also be important to determine the mass of sample required for analysis, the required timeframe, accuracy, and precision required, degree of confidence, scientific validation for use in a court of law, costs, fees and contractual agreements. There are a wide range of analytical methods available to forensic geologists [18,21,23,26,27,28,29,30].

Analysis usually commences with non-destructive and non-invasive visual examination, followed by binocular microscopy, then a multi phased approach, using complimentary analysis, as required. Where possible, follow on analysis by destructive methods should be avoided. Some techniques can exclude a comparison between samples but cannot necessarily confirm if a questioned and reference sample are from the same locations, as there may be another unknown locality with the same or similar characteristics.

Rocks are analysed when they have been used as a weapon, thrown into a house or used to sink an item or object in a river, lake other body of water. The analysis of rocks starts with photography and a geological description and classification, including the colour, grain size, mineralogy, structures, and textures. Follow on analysis could be required to determine the geological age of the rock, bulk geochemistry, mineralogy and identification of fossils or microfossils [31]. Typical methods are polarising light microscopy, XRD, automated SEM-EDS [30], Raman and Micro-CT. The ‘nugget-effect’ is an important consideration, whereby rare yet geochemically unique minerals can significantly influence the analytical results. In this context, the sample preparation is particularly relevant.

Soils and sediments contain a geological component. From a forensic perspective these may also contain other forms of trace evidence and as such require analysis by a pedologist (biomarkers, flora and fauna), palynologist (pollen and spores), mycologist (fungi), biologist (DNA) or archaeologist (artefacts and bone fragments). The soil samples should be dried before analysis, photographed and documented. The first phase of visual examination will determine the composition and texture including: the dominant particles, minerals, biological and plant remains, flora and fauna, spores, grain size, particle morphology, sorting, texture and anthropogenic inclusions (e.g. fibres, paint and glass) [20]. Characteristics that have been successfully used in forensic geology include colour, pH/Eh, cation exchange, magnetic susceptibility, thermal analysis, whole rock geochemistry, mineralogy, SEM with linked energy dispersive systems (EDS), XRD, stable isotope analysis, Ramon spectroscopy, microfossils identification and biological components (spores, pollen, diatoms, soil, organic matter, plant wax compounds, organics pollutants, microbial techniques and DNA) [32].

6. Search

Police and law enforcement regular conduct searches of people (e.g. for concealed drugs or weapons) to locate missing persons that may have voluntarily (e.g. to commit suicide) or involuntarily (e.g. abducted) ‘disappeared’. Searches may also take place at houses, buildings, engineered structures and vessels. Some searches can benefit by the inclusion of a forensic geologist, and in particular ground searches and water searches. These may also be supported by air observations (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Reconnaissance air observations from a police helicopter is often one of the preliminary search procedures when searching for a homicide grave to identify subtle ground disturbances or indicators (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

Ground searches are categorised as ‘detective’ to locate a buried target or ‘protective’ to prove the absence of a target such as explosive devises (e.g. ahead of a VIP visit to a venue). Ground searches are implemented to locate shallow, unmarked homicide graves; provide physical evidence to support a prosecution in a court of law; obtain intelligence; deprive criminals or their opportunities and resources to commit crime and locate graves and other burials related to homicide, serious and organised crime and counter terrorism (Figure 9).

Figure 9: The recovery of buried targets located during a search (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

Conventional and historical police led ground searches traditionally focus on line searching, possibly using untrained volunteers or trained support from the military or rescue services (Figure 10). In 1994, the author initiated a new search strategy during the search for a suspected homicide grave (The Moors Murders) in the Pennine Hills, in Northern England. This approach became known as the Geoforensic Search Strategy (GSS) and was originally based on combined mineral exploration and engineering geology strategy, and later incorporated police search methods. GSS developed over 25 years. The fundamental principles of GSS are based on a Conceptual Geological Model (CGM) (Figure 11) and a Conceptual Hydrogeological Model (CHM) (Figure 12), evaluation of diggability and an assessment of the likely detectable items (Figure 13), to provide a High Assurance Search (HAS) for the presence or absence of a specified buried target being sought. The principal search assets are satellite imagery, aerial photography, soil probing, detector dogs, geophysics, geochemical soil sampling (Figure 14). Each search advances from the macro to the micro (regional) to localised (site/scene) scale, and from the non-invasive to the invasive. There are three distinct phases; ‘pre-search’ (planning), ‘search’ (implementation) and ‘post-search’ (recovery and recording), sub-divided into 30 manageable and definable stages (Figure 15). GSS provides a collaborative geological and police blended approach and ensures that ground searches are proportionate, cost-effective, and pragmatic. GSS has been successfully applied throughout the UK, Europe, USA, Mexico, South America, Australia and New Zealand [13].

Figure 10: Forensic geology training with the Abu Dhabi Police (top left), Australian Federal Police (top right), Colombian National Police (bottom left) and for school children and members of the public in the UK (bottom right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

Figure 11: Conceptual geological model (CGM) for a homicide grave (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly [13]).

Figure 12: Conceptual hydrogeological model (CGM) for a homicide grave (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly, [13]).

Figure 13: An assessment of the target conditions forms part of the GSS pre-search stage evaluation. For example, leachate plumes and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from human remains may become important detectors during a search if a homicide victim is buried at a shallow depth in an unmarked grave, as demonstrated by these surface human decomposition events (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly, [13]).

Figure 14: Use of geophysics in ground searches for burials, including the search of an abandoned quarry in the UK using magnetometer and electromagnetic geophysics (top left), electric resistivity in Bogota, Colombia, for victims’ graves associated with drug trafficking cartels (top right), the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) in Sicily (bottom left) and Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (bottom right) (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

Figure 15: The pre-search, search and post-search phases and 30 stages of the Geoforensic Search Strategy (source, Dr Laurance Donnelly, [13]).

Searching water bodies tends to be logistically more challenging than terrestrial searches. Items related to crime may be dispose of in water including oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, harbours, docks, ports, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, drainage ditches and caves, flooded abandoned mine workings, wells, septic or slurry tanks. This often may require expertise on the dynamics (e.g. flow and currents) of the water body, water conditions and the taphonomic factors (e.g. decomposition or preservation) of submerged human remains. The main techniques tend to be the use of specialised computer modelling software, detector dogs on board a boat, geophysics (e.g. water penetrating radar), magnetometers (e.g. UXO detection), sonar and side-scan sonar.

7. Mining, Minerals and Metals Crimes

Minerals are essential to modern civilisation and have underpinned society for approximately the past 450,000 years since the extraction of flint in Palaeolithic times. Gold and copper mining have taken place for 18,000 years. Minerals were fundamental in the Bronze Age, Iron Age, Industrial Revolution and Digital Revolution. These are likely to remain critical as we embark upon the Green Revolution and Battery Revolution. The former being driven by the reduction in burning traditional fossil fuels, and vehicle electrification [33]. Vast wealth has been generated by mining, minerals and metals trading. However, conversely, mining can have a detrimental environmental impact and attracts significant and widespread criminality [34].

Illegal mining, and the trading of illicit minerals and metals has increased significantly in recent years. Driven in part by the high metals price and a change in Modus Operandi as some cartels and terrorist organisation use established trade routes for minerals instead of, or in addition to drug trafficking [35]. The beneficiaries are cartels, criminal gangs and terrorists that are well-organised, well-resourced and operate outside the laws. The substantial profits are subsequently legitimised via complex international money laundering schemes. Geologists have been working in collaboration with police and law enforcement agencies to detect, deter and disrupt these practices.

Criminal and illegal mining takes place by illegal armed groups, outside national laws and regulations and without the appropriate state permissions and licenses to explore and operate. The scale can vary from small to huge complex mining and mineral processing operations. Gold and other precious minerals are particularly susceptible to illegal mining, but also coal and industrial minerals. Interestingly, the illegal extraction of sand exceeds in value illegal metalliferous minerals (Table 1) [36]. South America, Mexico, Africa and India are regions where this type of unauthorised mining is prevalent. Illegal mining is often associated with crimes that includes women and children working excessively, slave labour, tax avoidance and human rights violations.

Table 1: Estimated value of illegal trading, showing geological materials including the huge value in the illegal extraction of sand, which exceeds gold, diamonds, precious stones and crude oil (source: modified after [36]).

Rating Transnational Crimes Estimated Annual Value (US$)
1 Counterfeit and pirated goods 923 billion – 1.12 billion
2 Drug trafficking 426 billion – 652 billion
3 Illegal sand extraction 1999.90 billion – 350 billion
4 Human trafficking 150.20 billion
5 Illegal logging 52 billion – 157 billion
6 Illegal gold, diamonds and precious stones 12 billion – 48 billion
7 Illegal fishing 15.50 billion – 35.40 billion
8 Illegal wildlife trading 5.00 billion – 23.00 billion
9 Crude oil theft 5.20 billion – 11.90 billion
10 Cultural and artist goods 1.20 billion – 1.70 billion
11 Arms trafficking 1.70 billion – 3.50 billion
12 Organ trafficking 0.84 billion – 1.70 billion

There are an estimated 13 million people involved in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), in some 30 countries. Although not all ASM is illegal [37]. General, ASM involves vulnerable communities, oppressive conditions, corruption, embezzlement, and associated criminality. ASM can displace indigenous people, sterilise future mineral resources and lead to environmental degradation, pollution, and contamination of land, water, and the air. ASM commonly includes conflict minerals, base metals (e.g. zinc, lead and copper), gold, cobalt, precious metals, diamonds, gemstones, coal, and industrial minerals (e.g. illegal sand extraction sand; see Table 1). ASM is characterised by no or poor geological control, no exploration, low mechanisation, labour intensive, no regulations and polices, poor health & safety, poor capital investment, low salaries and intermittent mining controlled by the metal’s price, weather conditions and other cultural, economic, and social factors. In some countries, such as DRC and Colombia, ASM is permitted under a registration scheme [35].

Conflict minerals are tin (used as a solder in electronics), tungsten (used in mobile phones, computers, video game consoles, aircraft parts) and tantalum (also known as columbite, used in electronics, welding, wire, electrodes, and heating). These minerals are referred to as the ‘3Ts’. Some types of gold are also regarded as a conflict mineral, and these are known as ‘3TG’ minerals. Cobalt is not formally a conflict mineral, but it is under scrutiny. These are mined by armed gangs, augmented by corrupt officials, and the proceeds fund wars and conflicts [38]. The extraction of 3TG minerals is reported to be associated with violence, harm, and human rights abuses against local people. Conflict minerals have been reported in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and surrounding countries including the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Zambia, Angola, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, and Uganda. Uganda exports gold to the USA, but produce’s little. The 3TG minerals can be smuggled via Uganda and Rwanda to Asia, where they are smelted and refined ahead of trading into Europe and USA as a commodity for technology products (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Conflict minerals in Africa and the associated trade routes (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly).

The purpose of substitution is to remove the more valuable minerals or products and replace them with material of a similar appearance, volume, mass or density. These have a much lower or negligible value in an attempt to disguise the theft, until a significant period has elapsed, between the switch taking place and it being detected. Adulteration (also known as ‘saltation’) is the adding of minerals to a sample ahead of assaying to artificially increase the overall percentage value of a commodity. Both substitution and adulteration are prevalent in the mining, minerals, and metals industries. In 1997, the Bre-X mining scam, the world largest known financial fraud, is a classic example of substitution. Whereby, gold grains were ‘salted’ onto gold contained in epigenetic, hydrothermal gold mineralisation, observed in exploratory core samples. This artificially inflated the value of a gold mine in Kalimantan, Borneo, before the fraud was revealed, resulting in the collapse of the Toronto Stock Exchange [39].

The faking and imitation of gold (Figure 17), minerals, precious metals, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires has taken place for several thousands of years and is prevalent today [40,41,42]. Diamond fakes are made from cubic zirconia and moissanite. Some gemstones can be enhanced by heating or filled with glass or oil to disguise fissures. Diamonds that originate from conflict areas are known as ’blood diamonds’. The terrorist group, Al-Qaeda are also reported to trade precious gemstones, such as Tourmaline Paraiba, found in Brazil, to raise finance. Fake fossils are common from central Asia, or they may be illegally extracted in parts of the Brazilian rainforest or Gobi Desert in Mongolia [43]. These may sell for hundreds of thousands and millions of dollars to collectors around the world. In 2017, a whole skeleton of a Mammuthus primigenius weighing 160 kg, originating from Siberia, with a value between 12,000 and 20,000 Euros, was auctioned for a value of 492,000 Euros, in France. Faked fossils such as fish, shrimps, lobsters, and dinosaurs are abundant and can be purchased on the Internet. One of the most infamous fossil fraud cases was the work or Prof Gupta who mapped Himalayan stratigraphy based on fossils purchased in England [44].

Figure 17: Fake gold bar, comprising a copper core, containing a thin gold leaf coating. Note the drill holes to confirm the copper core and the lineation’s on the outer surface showing where the copper was coated with gold (source: Dr Laurance Donnelly and Brazilian Federal Police).

7.1 Detect, Deter and Disrupt

Some guidance and best practice documents are publicly available to detect, deter and disrupt crimes associated with illegal mining and illicit minerals and metals trading. The encouraged codes of conduct, transparency and recommended due diligence, adopting policies across the minerals supply chains and risk assessments, chain of custody and mineral tracking [45,46,47].

Elemental profiling gives a geochemical profile (‘fingerprint’) of a mineral and permits traces to be identified. For example, in gold trace elements as silver, copper and mercury can assist in determining the geological provenance or metallogenic belt of the gold. Techniques such as Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) are particularly helpful, although these require a referential data base to be established [48]. Platinum smelter products stolen from refineries and detrital gold in the Archaeon alluvial fans of the Witwatersrand Basin, in South Africa, seized by the police have been traced to their source using elemental profiling [49]. Elemental profiling also enables legal gold and illegally processed gold to be distinguished, based on the metallic processing methods [50].

Mineralogical profiling is a convenient technique to investigate mineral samples suspected of adulteration, substitution, or fakery, to determine the provenance and for purposes of traceability [51]. Investigative methods include binocular microscopy, light polarising microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and automated mineralogy, based on a SEM with linked energy dispersive spectrometers. The analysis provides rapid determination and quantification of the mineralogy/phase chemistry, particle size and shape of a variety of sample types. Data collection is operator independent, with the acquisition of very large data sets, hence the results are statistically reliable and provide highly reproducible analyses. Isotopes may also be used to determine the provenance of minerals. For example, the ‘Geoforensic Passport’ uses XRF followed by lead isotope analysis, to avoid the purchase of doré from the La Rinconada mine in the Peruvian Andes, for import into European smelters and refineries.

The objective of provenance determination (predictive geolocation) is to determine the geographical location from where a mineral or metal sample was derived or refined, to verify whether it originated from a conflict source or from a mine or processing plant aligned with criminal activities. Traceability refers to the physical handling, tracing and tracking of precious minerals and metals as they move through the supply chain from the mine to the refiner and market. Traceability includes; chain of custody, sample management, sample security, bagging, tagging and certificate of origin, due diligence audits, registry of minerals producers and traders, the use of micro taggant identification particles, a geoforensic passport, elemental profiling, and mineralogical profiling (cradle to grave). There are a number of projects with a focus on provenance determination, including the Brazilian Federal Police, ‘Clean Gold Programme’ being developed for use by the security forces of other South American countries such as Colombia, Peru and French Guiana. The European Union, MaDiTraCe (Material & Digital Traceability for CRM Certification) project (https://www.maditrace.eu/) is driven by global commodity flows and regulatory frameworks pertaining to critical raw materials (CRMs), high on the European economic and political agenda. Some organisations and companies also seek to align with increased pressure to responsibly extract, process and source materials, including for example the EU Battery regulation [52, 53] and the EU Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence [54]. As such, transparency, standardised certification schemes, traceability, and data handling is likely to become increasingly important.

Some police forces take direct overt or covert action against illegal miners and minerals smuggling. Often these operations are intelligence led because of police, law enforcement agencies and military collaboration against armed gangs and cartels, and to lead units against criminal mining. For example, Colombia has joined a financial task force on money laundering in South America (El Grupo de Acción Financiera de Latinoamérica, GAFILAT). Additionally, established the ‘Unimic enfrentará la minería criminal (UNIMIC)’, part of the Directorate of Public Safety and Infrastructure at the Ministry of Defence and the Police Directorate of Rural Security. There were 1000 operations in 2015 and 3934 arrests, resulting in the seizure of 920 kg of illegal gold [45]. In July 2022, Operation Greed in Brazil, the largest environmental operation led by the Brazilian Federal Police resulted in US$ 3 billion in halted transactions, US$ 218 million in seized assets, 82 arrest warrants served, 600 vehicles and 6 aircrafts apprehended (personal communications, Brazilian Federal Police).

8. Conclusions

The applications of geology to support police and law enforcement investigations has been documented since the mid-nineteenth century. Before the start of the 2000s, most forensic geologists tended to work in relative isolation, often due to the sensitive and high-profile nature of their investigations. Over the past couple of decades forensic geology has become firmly established around the world, which has been driven in part by the operational deployment of geologists working alongside the police, and the establishment of organisations such as the Geological Society of London, Forensic Geoscience Group and the International Union of Geological Sciences, Initiative on Forensic Geology, both of which were established by the author in 2006 and 2011 respectively. These have provided outreach, knowledge exchange, capacity building, training, workshops, seminars, conferences, numerous publications, books, and best practice guidance on forensic geology. Into the foreseeable future, geologists are likely to continue offering support for crime scene examination, the provision of geological trace evidence, searches for burial, and to detect, deter and disrupt crimes in mining, minerals, and metals industries.

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